Vitiligo

Vitiligo is a skin disorder characterized by patches of nonpigmented skin. Its causes are unknown, but it may be linked to genetics. The genetics of vitiligo cannot be explained by simple Mendelian genetics; it is characterized by incomplete penetrance, multiple susceptibility loci and genetic heterogeneity. It may also be linked to overactive autoimmune responses. There is no known cure for vitilgo but there are many treatment options available.

The pigment of skin is determined by melanin. The activation of melanocytes in the melanin determines the darkness of the skin. Individuals with vitilago have immune systems that attack these melanocytes. This in turn causes a loss of pigmentation in the skin.

There are various forms of vitilago including generalized vitiligo, universal vitiligo, and focal vitiligo, . Generalized vitiligo is the most common and wide ranging and has highly random distribution. Universal vitiligo involves depigmentation of most of the body. Focal vitilago has a few scattered spots and is most common in children.

Source:

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16140217

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitiligo

DNA Simple: Making Genetic Research Easier

The other night, my girlfriend and I were watching an episode of "Shark Tank". I'm not sure if any of you have heard of this show, but the premise is people try to pitch business ideas to a group of moguls. Based on the persuasiveness of the presentation, the judges decide if they want to invest in the business or not. On this particular episode, there was a guy named Oliver Noel who is the CEO and founder of DNA Simple. Noel is a geneticist who is currently studying for his M.D. and Ph.D. at Pennsylvania State University's College of Medicine. He is a Haitian immigrant who moved to the United States after the devastating earthquakes that struck Haiti in 2010. He worked his way through college attaining a Bachelor's with a double major in Chemistry and Biochemistry and a Master's. Throughout his time as a undergraduate, graduate, and doctoral student Noel noticced that is was quite difficult to find sufficient amounts of human DNA for genetic research. This may be due financial and geological limitations.  During the pitch Noel stated "Some researchers, in a five-year grant, you spend three to four years to recruit people," he explains. "Literally there are studies that die because — let's say you're doing a study where you need 1,000 blacks or Hispanics. I'm in Hershey, Pa. No offense, it would take about 100 years to get those people." He went on to say that less than %5 of clinical trials have minorities in them. This is very difficult for geneticists because this shows that there is not enough genetic variability available to properly conduct effective genetic research. This is very alarming, because without this vital research there may be no way to stop future pandemics.

The basic business model of DNA Simple is to provide sufficient amounts of DNA for various genetic studies. This is done by allowing volunteers to register online and enter their personal and family medical histories. If this information lines up with a study that needs individuals with similar backgrounds, the volunteer will be sent a at home swab test. As compensation for participating in this research, they will be paid $50. And for every study their DNA is  used for, they will be paid another $50. And it is all 100% anonymous. This is very similar to blood and plasma banks. This company could be revolutionary in genetic research and disease control. One of the judges, billionaire Mark Cuban, was so intrigued by the business that he decided to invest $200,000 of his own money into the company. I would want to make some extra money, I left a link to register for DNA Simple down below.

Sources:

https://www.dnasimple.org/users/87303

https://www.cnbc.com/2017/11/13/mark-cuban-invested-200000-in-dna-simple-on-shark-tank-heres-why.html

$200K Sneakers?!?!?!?!

In 1989. the blockbuster film "Back To The Future Part II" was released. The movie is the sequel to "Back To The Future" and is about the time-traveling adventures of teenager Marty Mcfly (portrayed by Michael J. Fox) and scientist Dr. Emmett "Doc" Brown (portrayed by Christopher Lloyd). The protagonist travel fowards and backwards in time. In the film, they travel to 2015 and are pursued by villians. While fleeing, Marty Mcfly dons a pair of sneakers called "Nike Air Mags" which are able to lace on their own and possess their own power source.

These shoes would eventually take on a life of their own and would gain a cult following clamoring for their eventual release. In 2015, Nike announced that they would be auctioning pairs of the shoes for The Michael J. Fox Foundation. The Michael J. Fox Foundation is a charitable organization that is attempting to find a cure for Parkinson's Disease.The shoes came equipped with a self-lacing system and lights inside of the out sole. The auctions garnered tons of attention, and one pair sold in New York for $200,000 (!?). Other pairs sold in Hong Kong for over $100,000 and in London for $56,000. The shoes have been released a few times, and have made quite a bit of money for the Foundation. Michael J. Fox has been diagnosed with Parkinson's Disease since 1991. Other notable individuals that have had Parkinson's are Muhammed Ali and Janet Reno.

Parkinson's Disease is disorder is a long term neurodegenerative disorder that mainly affects the motor system. Symptoms usually begin with shaking, rigidity, and difficulty speaking. The symptoms eventually worsen with the individual losing control of many motor facilities. This neurodegeneration is the result of the deterioration of the subtantia nigra (a region of the midbrain) by the lack of the precence of dopamine. The causes of the disease are unknown, but there have been some connections found between Parkinson's and genetics. The disease may be caused by a mutations in various genes including  SNCA, LRRK2, GBA, PRKN, PINK1, PARK7, VPS35, EIF4G1, DNAJC13 and CHCHD2. Parkinson's Disease also affects lysosome function, which leads to an excess build up of cell waste products. This build may interfere with and impair cell functions. There is no known cure for Parkinson's Disease but there has been promising developments in stem cell research.

Source:

http://www.nicekicks.com/nike-mag-goes-200000-new-york-city-auction/

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parkinson%27s_disease

http://www.parkinson.org/understanding-parkinsons

CTE Biochemical Markers and Their Implications on Professional Sports: Part 2

In one of my earlier blogs, I spoke about the future implications of CTE (chronic truamatic encephalopathy) on professional sports. One of the most notable cases of brain damage involving a professional athlete  is that of Aaron Hernandez. Aaron Hernandez was a former tight end for Florida (where he was an All-American) in college and the New England Patriots, where he played 3 seasons until his football career abruptly ended. In 2013, Hernandez was arrested for the murder of Odin Lloyd, a minor league football player and the boyfriend of Hernandez's girlfriend's sister. Hernandez would also be indicted for another homicide that resulted in the deaths of 2 men in Boston. Hernandez was eventually convicted in the murder of Lloyd and was sentenced to life in prison. Days after being acquitted of the double homicide, Hernandez hung himself in his prison cell. His conviction in the Lloyd homicide was vacated due to a techincal loophole.

It was later revealed that Hernandez donated his brain to scientific research. While alive, he had expressed his belief that he was suffering from CTE and would like to confirm his suspisions after his death. As I stated in my previous blog, CTE can only be confirmed after death because it requires extensive biopsies of the brain. Recently Dr. Ann McKee, the director of the BU CTE Center and chief of neuropathology for the VA Boston Healthcare System, revealed the results of the studies she has been conducting on the brain of Aaron Hernandez. She stated that Aaron Hernandez's brain was the worst she has seen for a person his age, and that the amount of injuries that he had sustained took years. The damage was even down to the microscopic level. In the picture below, each brown spot represents an injury and the holes represent serious brain trauma.

This study may be used as evidence in future litigation against the NFL and may also bring about changes to the NFL's rules and business practices. This also shows that person with a relatively short career can sustain serious brain injuries that may bring about erratic behavior. Hernandez's wife attests that her deceased husband's CTE caused him to commit murder and to act impulsively and erratically. Another notable NFL player, Hall of Famer Junior Seau, stated that he felt that he was suffering from CTE before committing suicide. His brain was also examined and it also showed signs of severe trauma and CTE.

Sources:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aaron_Hernandez

https://www.nytimes.com/2017/09/22/health/aaron-hernandez-brain.html

ALS and the Strength of Lou Gehrig

To commemorate the recent World Series victory of the Houston Astros, I thought that it would be appropriate to discuss a disease that had a monumental effect on not only baseball, but the world as a whole. In 1939  "The Iron Horse" Lou Gehrig, who was only 36 years old, was diagnosed with ALS (Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis) a fatal neurodegenrerative disease and was given a dire prognosis of only a few years to live. Lou Gehrig was in the prime of his career and was arguably the greatest baseball player of all time with the most grand slams and the longest consecutive streak of games played (2,130), a record that stood until 1995 (broken by Cal Ripken Jr.). Gehrig was forced to retire and gave a heart-wrenching  farewell address in front of over 60,000 fans in Yankees Stadium. He would tragically die 2 years later at the age of 37. He also holds the honored distinction of the the first athlete OF ANY SPORT to have his number retired. The beloved Lou Gehrig gave a face to this debilitating disease, and through his bravery, class, and humility he was able to be an inspiration to anyone facing an obstacle or hardship in life.

ALS is a neurological disease that deteriorates the motor neurons of the brain. The symptoms initially begin with difficulty with writing, talking, and walking. Eventually, the sufferer loses control of all muscular functions including breathing. In fact, 90% ALS cases die from respiratory failure. The cause of ALS is unknown and there is no cure. The occurrence of ALS is extremely rare with only 20,000 new cases per year. 10% of ALS are inherited while the other 90% are sporadic, or of unknown origin. The average survival from onset to death is 2 to 4 years. Some can live longer if diagnosis and treatment begins early on. One of the famous individuals with the disease, Stephen Hawking, has lived with ALS since 1963. There are various methods of diagnosis including blood and urine tests, nerve conduction study, spinal tap, and muscle biopsy.


Sources:
https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/amyotrophic-lateral-sclerosis/diagnosis-treatment/drc-20354027

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Hawking

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lou_Gehrig

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amyotrophic_lateral_sclerosis

The Molecular Basis of Alzheimer's Disease

Alzheimer's Disease is a form of dementia that causes memory loss, cognitive impairment, progressive neurodegeneration, and erratic behavior. I have a personal connection to Alzheimer's because my grandmother was diagnosed with the disease when I was a child. I saw for myself the severe neurodegenerative effects that Alzheimer's can have on all facets of life.Alzheimer's Disease is the most common form of dementia accounting for approximately 60%-80% of dementia cases. Despite this statistic, Alzheimer's is not a normal part of aging. The disease progressively worsens over time with symptoms ranging from memory loss to complete loss of bodily functions. Alzheimer's is the sixth largest cause  of death in America, and there is currently no known cure. There are some treatment options available. Hopefully there will be more viable treatment options available for individuals that are suffering with this terrible disease.

Alzhemier's Disease is caused by the formation of amyloid-beta-containing plaques and neurofibrillary tangles composed of hyperphosphorylated tau protein. Tau proteins are proteins that stabalize microtubules. They are very common in neurons, but are not found in abundance elsewhere in the body. A number of other signaling proteins are also included in the progressive neurodegeneration of Alzheimer's including glycogen synthase kinase-3-beta and cyclin-dependent kinase-s.





Sources:

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2274891/

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2875049/

http://www.sciencemag.org/news/2017/09/new-study-changing-how-scientists-think-about-alzheimer-s-disease

Molecular Biology in Cinema: Lorenzo's Oil

Lorenzo's Oil is  the true life story of Augusto and Micheala Odone (portrayed by Nick Nolte and Susan Saradon) who are suddenly faced with the challenge of their child, Lorenzo, being stricken with Adrenoleulzodystrophy (ALD). The film chronicles the affects of the disease and their desperate search for a cure. ALD is an extremely diabilatating neurodegenerative disease that destroys the lipids that form the myelin sheaths of axons in the brain. This reduces the connectivity of the neurons of the brain. It is X-linked recessive, and is fatal in many cases. It mostly affects males, but has been shown to manifest in females. ALD is caused by a mutation in ABCD1, a gene located on the X-chromosome. The disease can cause blindness, paralysis, sexual dysfunction, and dementia.

The film begins with Lorenzo as a normal, active 5 year old boy. He suddenly begins to demonstrate neurological problems such as erratic behavior, loss of hearing, and seizures. He is eventually diagnosed with ALD and given a life expectancy of 2 years. Lorenzo's condition rapidly deteriorates, leading to him completely losing his sight, hearing, and his ability to speak.

Despite his dire prognosis, the Odones fiercely search for a cure, culling through endless amounts of scientific research. They eventually find a therapy that involves a mixture of oils isolated from rapeseed oil and olive oil that contain 2 specific long chain fatty acids. They contact over 100 firms to attempt to find a company who can  synthesize this oil. They find a British chemist who is willing to perform the complicated distillation of the oil, which is later to be found to be erucic acid. Their discovery retards the progression of Lorenzo's ALD and even helps him regain his hearing and some cognitive faculties. Despite its positive effects, erucic acid, later named Lorenzo's Oil, is not able to rebuild Lorenzo's deteriorated myelin sheaths. The film ends with a montage of real-life ALD suvivors who have been treated with Lorenzo's Oil. Lorenzo's Oil is still used today, in conjunction with other methods (stem cell research, gene therapy), as a treatment option for ALD.

Although Lorenzo's Oil was a commercial failure at the time of its release in 1992, it was critically acclaimed. The film garnered 2 Academy Award nominations one for Best  Supporting Actress (Susan Sarandon) and another for Best Original Screenplay.

The Genetic Code

The genetic code is the nearly universal set of rules by which information encoded within genetic material is translated into proteins by living cells. The code consists of a series of codons (a set of nucleotide triplets) that code for specific amino acids which will eventually form proteins. The codon list can be seen below.The genetic code is the basis of all life on planet Earth. Non universal genetic codes are found in some organisms and organelles. The genome of most organisms is inscribed in DNA, and in RNA in viruses.

The genetic code was revolutionized and deciphered by Marshall Nirenberg and his colleagues at the National Institutes of Health. In 1961 Hirenberg and Heinrich J. Matthaei were the first to discover and discern the function of codons. Within five years, the entire genetic code was dechiphered. Hirenberg also explained how RNA is related to protein synthesis.

The genetic code is the recipe for the majority of life on Earth. The RNA codons code for various proteins, which in turn build the structures of the body. The genetic code can be used to determine which areas of the chromosome control specific features and functions. This may also be used in the future to diagnose and cure many genetic and congenital diseases.

Sources:

https://www.acs.org/content/acs/en/education/whatischemistry/landmarks/geneticcode.html

http://www.genomenewsnetwork.org/resources/timeline/1961_Nirenberg.php

The Mitochondrial Eve

In molecular biology and genetics, the Mitochondrial Eve is the most recent matrilineal (maternal descent) common ancestor of all living humans. The mitochondrial eve is also known as mt-Eve or mt- MRCA. The name is derived from the Biblical character Eve, who was the first woman on Earth and is the mother of all humanity. Mitochondrial Eve does not refer to one female, but rather to a hypothesized group originating in the continent of Africa. It is estimated to be 99-148 thousands years old.

This information has been discerned because in most cases mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) is inherited from mother to offspring without recombination. Therefore, the maternal mitochondrial DNA remains non-mutated, and is carried on unadulterated to the nest generation. The male counterpart to Mitochondrial Eve is the Y-chromosome Adam, the male in which all homo sapiens descended from. Instead of mitochondrial DNA, descendants of Y-chromosome Adam inherited the nuclear Y-chromosome. The Mitochondrial Eve and Y-chromosome Adam are not the first two homo sapiens, but rather the most recent common ancestors of individuals that carry these traits. These two also did not necessarily live at the same time. Mitochondria and Y-Chromosomes did not have originate at the same time at the same place.

Mitochondrial Eve and Y-Chromosome Adam do  not only exist in humans. These two are present in nearly all living things on Earth. "They are the ancestors of dinosaurs, trees, butterflies, (even) Donald Trump". Mitochondrial DNA can be used to build phylogeny, determine geographical places of origin, and find common ancestors. It may be possible in the future to find even older Mitochondrial Eves and Y-Chromosome Adams.

Sources:

https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/no-mitochondrial-eve-not-first-female-species-180959593/

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mitochondrial_Eve

CTE Biochemical Markers and Their Implications on Professional Sports

There has been quite a bit  of news recently about the long term effects of CTE on professional athletes. Most recently with the announcement of a lawsuit filed by the widow of former NFL player (and convicted murderer) Aaron Hernandez. She claims that head injuries the Hernandez sustained during his NFL tenure led to his homicidal and suicidal behaviors. Also, last year the NFL paid a $1 Billion settlement to former players who had sustained concussions while playing. The future implications of CTE could be monumental on not just the NFL but all of professional sports.

CTE (Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy) is a neurodegenerative disorder that is found in individuals that have recieved multiple brain injuries.These injuries can ranged from minor to significant. It has been found to affect individuals that have participated in contact sports such as American Football, MMA, Boxing, and Soccer as well as soldiers that have been exposed to blasts from IEDs (Improvised Explosive Devices). CTE can affect individuals as young a middle school aged and can be triggered by insignificant head trauma. The pathology of CTE manifests in four steps...
           Stage 1:  Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), confusion, dizziness, headaches
           Stage 2: Memory loss, anxiety, impulsive behavior, poor judgement
           Stage 3: Vertigo, movement disorders, speech impediments
           Stage 4: Dementia, depression, deafness, suicidality

Normally, an individual must be deceased before that can be properly diagnosed with CTE. A biopsy of their brain tissue must be performed and PET image must be obtained. However, there have been breakthroughs in CTE diagnosis and research. Analysis of cerebrospinal fluid proteins and plasma are potential alternatives to standard detection methods. CCL11 (a protein coded by genes on chromosome 17) may be a potential biomarker for individuals with CTE, Alzheimer's Disease, and other neurodegenerative diseases. CLL11 is a protein that is associated with age-related cognitive degeneration and it has been observed in the brains of individuals with CTE and Alzheimer's. Elevated levels of CCLL11 can be found in their CSF and plasma, and these levels could be used to diagnose indivduals with these diseases. These tests could be used to diagnosed athletes who currently play in these sports, and when faced with the risks of acquiring CTE may decide to end their careers prematurely.


Sources:

http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0185541

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4249716/

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronic_traumatic_encephalopathy

Molecular Biology in Cinema: Gattaca

In my attempt to make this as interesting and tolerable as possible  I will try to connect Molecular Biology to one of my biggest interests, movies. One of my favorite genres of film is science fiction. Although the vast majority of science fiction films that are made are based in fantasy, they can be very predictive of future scientific breakthroughs. Just take a look one episode of the original "Star Trek" and you will see many devices that look like the ones we use today.

One movie that may be very predictive is the 1996 film "Gattaca". The title is composed of the nucleotide base pairs G, A, T, C. Long story short, it is about a future dystopian society that has attained the ability to genetically alter its future offspring and select the best hereditary traits.   Parents are able to change their children's physical and psychological traits by simple altering the embryo's genetic code. The film tackles the issues of eugenics, class systems, and genetics.

Could this be replicated in real life? According to NPR, scientists have been able to successfully edit DNA in human embryos. They were able to do so without causing any harmful mutations. Research of this nature could have monumental implications in eugenics and family planning. But, if left unchecked this could lead to a generation of irresponsibly genetically modified humans

Sources:

http://www.npr.org/sections/health-shots/2017/08/02/540975224/scientists-precisely-edit-dna-in-human-embryos-to-fix-a-disease-gene

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gattaca

The Watson-Crick-Franklin Controversy

When one thinks of DNA and Molecular Biology, the first thing you think of is James Watson and Francis Crick. It's almost like "Watson&Crick" is one word in science. They have been renown throughout history for their groundbreaking research in molecular biology, especially for their discovery of the structure of DNA. Many may not know that Watson and Crick were not the first individuals to decipher the structure of DNA. That person was in fact Rosalind Franklin. Franklin used x-ray diffraction to determine the anti-parallel nature of DNA molecules. She photographed this pattern for the now famous "Photograph 51".

After taking this photograph, Franklin showed it to her colleague at King's College London, Maurice Wilkins. Wilkins himself was highly respected scientist in x-ray diffusion and optical microscopy, and even helped develop radar technology. After being given this image, Wilkins showed the photo to James Watson. He did so without Rosalind Franklin's knowledge or approval. From this picture James Watson and his colleague Francis Crick were able to discern the double helical structure of DNA. Watson, Crick, and Wilkins would go on to be awarded the 1962 Nobel Peace Prize in Physiology or Medicine. Rosalind Franklin was ineligible because she had died of gynecological cancer 4 years earlier. Deceased individuals are not eligible for the Nobel Prize.

Did Watson and Crick steal this idea from Franklin? Some will say Watson committed theft and plagiarism, some will say he was inspired by Franklin's images. I say that science is a collaborative process and all scientists build upon the data and knowledge scientists before them have found. The worst part of this whole story is that Franklin was not honored with the Nobel Prize and her hard work may fade into obscurity as time passes.

Sources:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosalind_Franklin

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maurice_Wilkins

https://profiles.nlm.nih.gov/ps/retrieve/Narrative/SC/p-nid/143/p-docs/true

Advancements in Organ Transplants From Pigs

One of the biggest problems in contemporary medicine is the shortage of viable organs for transplantation. There are simple not enough organs available for the individuals who need them. One feasible option is the use of animal organs. This practice is known as xenotransplantation.  There are many risks involved with xenotransplantation including physiological incompatibility, zootonic transmission of disease (also known as zoonosis), and negative immune responses. Despite these risks, there has been quite a bit of research about xenotransplantation.

One animal that is being considered for organ donation is the pig. Some pig organs' size and function are very similar to their human counterparts. One challenge that is present in pig organ donation is the transmission of pig PERVs. PERVs are porcine endogenous retroviruses. PERVs are highly dangerous and potentially lethal pathogens that can be passed for swines to humans.  Chinese researchers have been looking at ways to prevent transmission of PERVs. Through the use of CRISPR-Cas9, these researchers have been able stop the damaging effects of these viruses. Could this be the new breakthrough in modern medicine?

I feel that if this research continues, it could lead to some of the largest advancements in the history of medicine. It could singlehandedly eradicate many genetic and congenital diseases that effect the organs of the body. This could also lead to xenotransplantation in other animals.


Sources:

http://science.sciencemag.org/content/357/6357/1238

http://science.sciencemag.org/content/357/6357/1303

Female Viking Discovery: The Real Life Lady Brienne

Most of you may not know this, but I am a HUGE Game of Thrones fan. In my opinion, it is the greatest show in the history of television (ya'll are welcome to discuss this in the comments section). Seriously if you haven't watched this show, do yourself a favor and do so. In the show there is a character named Lady Brienne of Tarth. She is a noblewoman who has forsaken the conventional gender roles of Westeros (one of the continents that Game of Thrones takes place) in order to become a knight. She is one of the fiersest and strongest warriors on the show, and has garnered respect from most of the other characters she has encountered. In Westeros, it is an exteremly rare phenomena for a woman to become a knight or fighter. Most women in this world are destined to be married young and bare children.

Recently, a story was published in Science Magazine about the discovery of a female viking warrior burial site. She was unearthed by Swedish researchers with "a sword, an ax, a spear, arrows, a knife, two shields, and a pair of warhorses". This is indicative of the burial of a high ranking viking warrior who, through the analysis of skeletal characteristics and DNA, is the first of which to be determined as female. Like Lady Brienne in Game of Thrones, this woman broke conventional gender norms to become a highly respected, high ranking warrior.

The researchers used genome-wide sequence data to determine the biological sex of the individual. According to their published work the researchers found that "the genomic results revealed the lack of a Y-chromosome and thus a female biological sex, and the mtDNA analyses support a single-individual origin of sampled elements.". This discovery shows that molecular biology and genetics not only have important medical applications, but also have monumental historical and social implications as well. Molecular biology can change and manipulate the way that we view the social constructs of the world and how they came to be. This is only one of many assumptions about human social evolution that has been shattered by DNA analysis.


Sources:

http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ajpa.23308/full

http://www.sciencemag.org/news/2017/09/dna-proves-fearsome-viking-warrior-was-woman

The Relationship Between Molecular Biology and The Central Dogma

Throughout this semester, I will use this blog to attempt to shed light on not only the vast wealth of historical knowledge about molecular biology, but also contemporary research and discoveries made by modern day scientists. As our society continues to progress scientifically, the study of molecular biology has become essential to our understanding of the world and its inhabitants (both human and nonhuman). Molecular Biology is defined by Science Daily as "the study of molecular underpinnings of the process of replication, transcription and translation of the genetic material". The crux of molecular biology is the central dogma which was defined by the renowned scientist Francis Crick. He is also known for his co-discovery of the molecule DNA with James Watson. This has been disputed and I may elaborate on this controversy further in a later blog post. In 1958,Crick stated "that once ‘information has passed into protein it cannot get out again". He further elaborated that "the transfer of information from nucleic acid to nucleic acid, or from nucleic acid to protein may be possible, but transfer from protein to protein, or from protein to nucleic acid is impossible".Crick basically described the processes of replication, transcription and translation as well as how nucleic acids( DNA and RNA) and proteins work together. The central dogma is the bedrock of molecular biology and genetic research.  Watson and Crick's groundbreaking scientific revelations revolutionized the human understanding of life and its underlying processes. It cannot be said enough how essential their work and research was to molecular biology and science as a whole.

Sources:

https://www.sciencedaily.com/terms/molecular_biology.htm

http://dna.caltech.edu/courses/cs191/paperscs191/CrickCentralDogma1970.pdf